IELTS Forcast Reading Test 2025 - Q3 Test 3 with Practice Test, Answers And Explanation
Luyện tập đề IELTS Forcast Reading Test 2025 - Q3 Test 3 được lấy từ cuốn sách Forcast Test 2025 - Q3 với trải nghiệm thi IELTS trên máy và giải thích đáp án chi tiết bằng Linearthinking, kèm answer key và list từ vựng IELTS cần học trong bài đọc.
IELTS Forcast Reading Test 2025 - Q3 Test 3 with Practice Test, Answers And Explanation
Passage
❓ Câu hỏi passage 1
Question 1 - 8
Complete the table below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Early long-distance communications in Australia
Date
Details
19th century
• Lack of public transport across the continent resulted in people travelling by
1
.
1841
• An explorer walked across the Nullarbor Plain with the help of a
2
.
1877
• Equipment for the
3
was installed in the Nullarbor Plain.
1896
• A new railway line in Western Australia followed the route of a
4
.
1901
• The prospect of an interstate railway persuaded Western Australia to join a
5
.
1917
• TAR was completed in a
6
.
• The
7
section of TAR was longer than that in any other country.
• The new 4ft 8 inch TAR track was a
8
width.
Question 9 - 13
Choose
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
9
The first chief engineer's recommendation for TAR trains was fully implemented.
10
The Trans-Australian Express was popular with both local residents and tourists.
11
The Tea and Sugar Train provided health services as well as food supplies.
12
The Indian Pacific service was introduced before the entire TAR route became a standard gauge.
13
Some of the stops on the Indian Pacific route have to be specially arranged.
Passage
❓ Câu hỏi passage 2
Question 14 - 18
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-G
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-G
14
A recognition that facial expressions do not always provide a true guide to feelings.
15
Examples of ways that a person’s facial expression can affect someone else’s actions.
16
A reference to reasons for hiding emotions.
17
Examples of times when facial expressions are used especially frequently.
18
Examples of changes inside the body when an emotion is felt.
Question 19 - 23
Look at the following statements and the list of researchers below.
Match each statement with the correct researcher, A-E.
Write the correct letter, A-E.
List of Findings
A
Paul Ekman
B
Alan Fridlund
C
James Russell
D
Linda Camras
E
Joseph Campos
19
Focusing on the face in researching emotions is similar to researching a large structure by looking at just one small unit of it.
20
Facial expressions developed in order to encourage other people to react in particular ways.
21
Although certain researchers have different opinions about various points, they share some important ideas.
22
Both emotion and expression can exist independently of each other in certain circumstances.
23
It cannot be proved that there is a connection between facial expression and real emotion.
Question 24 - 26
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
24
In Fridlunds view, a
on someone's face may be intended as an invitation to come nearer.
25
According to Fridlund, when we are by ourselves we still use facial expressions because we are having a
with someone in our minds.
26
Fridlund considers facial expressions to be
that can affect our contact with other people.
Passage
❓ Câu hỏi passage 3
Question 27 - 29
Choose appropriate options A, B, C or D.
27
According to the first paragraph, the rock-art in Serra da Capivara may revolutionize accepted ideas about
A
the way primitive people lived in North America.
B
the date when the earliest people arrived in South America.
C
the origin of the people who crossed the Bering Straits.
D
the variety of cultures which developed in South America.
28
How did the ancient artists use the form of the rock where they painted?
A
To mimic the shape of the countryside nearby.
B
To emphasize the shape of different animals.
C
To give added light and shade to their paintings.
D
To give the impression of distance in complex works.
29
In the fourth paragraph, what does the writer say that is unusual about the rock-artists of Serra da Capivara?
A
They had a very wide range of subject-matter.
B
Their work often appears to be illustrating a story.
C
They tended to use a variety of styles in one painting.
D
They rarely made new paintings on top of old ones.
Question 30 - 36
Choose
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
30
Archaeologists have completed their survey of the rock-art in Piaui.
31
The location of the rock-art suggests that the artists had a significant role in their society.
32
The paintings of animals show they were regarded as sacred by the ancient humans.
33
Some damage to paintings is most likely due to changes in the weather of the region.
34
The fact that some paintings were buried is useful to archaeologists.
35
The tools found near some paintings were probably used for hunting animals.
36
The North American researchers have confirmed Niede Guidon's dating of the paintings.
Question 37 - 40
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-F below.
List of Findings
A
are giving rise to a great deal of debate among palaeo-anthropologists.
B
do not support the earliest dates suggested for the arrival of people in America.
C
are absent from rock-art sites In the Serra da Capivara.
D
have not been accepted by academics outside America.
E
centre on whether or not they are actually man-made.
F
reflect the advances in scientific dating methods.
37
Materials derived from plants or animals
38
The discussions about the ancient hearths
39
Theories about where the first South Americans originated from
40
The findings of archaeologists in Oregon
DOL IELTS Đình Lực
05/05/2026
📖 Bài đọc passage 1
The Trans-Australian Railway (TAR)
Up until the first part of the 20th century, communications across the Australian continent were relatively undeveloped. Perth, the capital of Western Australia, remained isolated from Australia's eastern states until the Trans-Australian Railway (TAR) was built across the arid area known as the Nullarbor (No Trees) Plain. During the 19th century, the only form of transport between the west coast and the eastern cities was a long and often rough sea voyage across the Great Australian Bight, while the first east-west crossing of the Nullarbor Plain on foot was achieved by the English explorer Edward Eyre and his indigenous Australian guide Wylie in 1841. In 1877 a telegraph line was built across the plain, and it was this man-made structure that a mining engineer called Arthur Richardson followed, when he set out in 1896 to be the first to ride a bicycle around the Australian continent.
The first railway in Western Australia had opened in 1871, and by 1896 there was a 313-mile line going eastwards through the inhospitable landscape as far as Kalgoorlie. This line was built alongside a pipeline carrying drinking water to the arid goldfields around Kalgoorlie. Meanwhile, in the south-east of the continent, a railway line from Port Augusta to Oodnadetta had opened in 1891. These early railways in both the east and the west were built to the narrow gauge of 3ft 6in.
In 1901, the self-governing colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia got together to form a federation. One of the incentives held out to Western Australia to become a member had been the promise of a trans-continental railway linking Perth with the eastern cities. A survey of the route across the featureless Nullarbor Plain was completed in 1909, and construction started to join the two existing railways at each end in 1912. Despite the onset of the First World War, work progressed until the two lines finally converged, at a site in an area of desert, in 1917. The railway's claim to fame is that its route includes the longest stretch - 297 miles- of straight track in the world. Although the existing railways at each end had been built to the narrow gauge, the new 1,052 mile stretch was built to the standard gauge of 4ft 8in. These two breaks of gauge would mean a true trans-continental service did not exist until 1970.
Water supplies for steam engines on the TAR route were non-existent, as the railway did not cross a permanent watercourse along its entire length. To overcome this, the TAR line's original chief engineer had requested diesel engines, but his request was not granted, so steam haulage had to be supported by extra water tankers carried on each train. Australian-built, diesel electric engines eventually replaced steam haulage in 1951.
As well as being an important freight route, the new line saw the introduction of the Trans Australian Express, a service which commenced running in 1917 to serve isolated communities and settlements along its route. For much of its long-running life, this twice-weekly train consisted solely of sleeping cars; seated accommodation was only included from 1981 until the service terminated ten years later. The route of the train was extended following the conversion to standard gauge of its narrow-gauge sections in 1970, but facing increased competition from air travel it last ran in June 1991.
One long-lived curiosity of the trans-Australian network was the Tea and Sugar Train, which also started running in 1917. The train brought to communities along the route not only the necessities for everyday life, but also a butcher's shop, medical facilities and a cinema. It last ran in 1996.
Despite the withdrawal of the Trans-Australian Express between Adelaide and Perth in 1991, the Indian Pacific service has operated between Sydney on the east coast and Perth since 1970, the year that the TAR route was completely converted to standard gauge. This service is operated by Great Southern Rail. It runs twice a week between Adelaide and Perth, and once a week between Sydney and Perth. The journey time for the complete 2,704-mile journey is 66 hours westbound and 71 hours eastbound.
The Indian Pacific service calls by at the isolated outback railway settlements of Pimba, which has a population of around fifty, Kingoonya, which only has a hotel, and Tarcoola, which has a population of around forty and is a junction for the south-north line to Darwin. It then travels to Cook, which, despite having a population of fewer than ten, is a scheduled stop, before crossing the Nullarbor Plain in a dead straight line for 297 miles to Loongana, which is uninhabited and is a request stop, and Rawlinna, also a request stop serving Australia's largest sheep station. Civilisation is eventually reached at Kalgoorlie before the last leg of the journey westwards to East Perth Station. The train has carriages with seating, sleeping cars, a restaurant car, and wagons conveying passengers' motor cars.
🔥 Đáp án & giải thích 1
1
sea
Giải thích chi tiết
☺️ Ứng dụng Linearthinking để giải quyết dạng bài Gap Fill
Step 01: Read the question to understand (main idea + detail) + Predict Word Form + Meaning
Simplified:
Lack of public transport across the continent resulted in people travelling by ____ in 19th century
Prediction: Danh từ (N) - chỉ một phương tiện giao thông hoặc cách thức đi lại.
-------
Step 02: Locate relevant information
🔍 Từ khóa: "19th century", “Lack of public transport”, “travelling by”
=> Dựa vào các từ khoá trên -> Tìm được trích dẫn ở đoạn 1.
-------
Step 03: Read relevant information to understand (main + detail)
📌Trích dẫn: "During the 19th century, the only form of transport between the west coast and the eastern cities was a long and often rough sea voyage across the Great Australian Bight,"
Simplified: The only form of transport between the west coast + the eastern cities was a sea voyage during the 19th century
Main idea: Hình thức giao thông duy nhất giữa bờ Tây và các thành phố phía Đông làmột chuyến đi bằng đường biển (sea voyage) trong thế kỷ 19.
-------
Step 04: Compare meaning with meaning
Trong bài đọc: Phương tiện đi lại là chuyến đi bằng đường biển ("sea").
Trong câu hỏi: Thiếu phương tiện giao thông công cộng → dẫn đến mọi người đi lại bằng _______.
→ Suy ra từ cần điền: Cách thức đi lại = đường biển = sea
Do facial expressions reflect inner feelings? Or are they social devices for influencing others?
A
A. The use of facial expressions for measuring people's emotions has dominated psychology since the late 1960s. This was when Paul Ekman of the University of California pioneered the idea that, by carefully measuring facial expression, he could evaluate people's true emotions. Ekman carried out experiments in which people were asked to label photos of basic facial expressions such as a smile, frown or scowl with words for emotions. He found, for example, that a smile represented joy and a scowl represented anger. In fact, since the 1970s Ekman has dominated the field of emotion research with his theory that when an emotion occurs, a large number of electrical impulses also occur, creating specific facial expressions and other physiological changes, such as increased or decreased heart rate or heightened blood pressure.
B
Many took Ekman's work to imply that facial expressions precisely indicated people's feelings. However, this theory has been attacked by a number of psychologists, such as Alan Fridlund of the University of California, who claim that there is no one-to-one correspondence between facial expressions and emotions. Expressions evolved to set off certain behaviors in other people, says Fridlund. So a smile may prompt people to approach, a scowl may warn them to stay away, and a look of sadness may elicit words of sympathy and reassurance. In other words, in Fridlund's view, facial expressions are inherently social they involve not one, but two or more people. Even when people are alone they are holding a dialog with another person internally, or imagining themselves in a social situation.
C
Thus Fridlund thinks of facial expressions as tools for influencing social interactions, a view which, he claims, enables us to begin predicting when certain facial expressions will occur. This in turn will allow more precise theories about social interactions. His studies find that expressions occur most often during pivotal points, the turning points in social interactions during greetings, social crises, or times of appeasement, for example. At these pivotal points there is an approach, or closeness, or more intimacy, and facial expressions, as well as gestures, open up the possibilities of various social interactions.
D
Although much work on the emotions relies on a link between facial expression and emotions, psychologist James Russell, of the University of British Columbia, says there is very little evidence supporting such a connection. 'There's some sense in which faces express emotion, but only in the sense that everything expresses emotion,' says Russell, a long-time critic of the expression-emotion link. 'Music does, posture does, words do, tone of voice does, your behavior does. The real question is, "Is there anything special about faces?"" And there we really do not know much. What is more likely, argues Russell, is that facial expressions tell others something about a person's overall mood and context, rather than provide details about specific emotions.
E
Others, including Ekman, argue that the face can display information about emotions, but they admit that it is not reliable one hundred percent of the time. And those who only examine faces when trying to study emotion will jump to false conclusions. But according to Ekman, to say, as Fridlund does, that there is no connection at all between facial expressions and emotions is simply wrong. 'There is a link between facial expression and emotion,' agrees developmental psychologist Linda Camras of DePaul University, 'but it's not a one-to-one kind of relationship as many once thought.' She believes there are many situations where emotion is experienced, yet no basic facial expression is displayed. And there are times when a facial expression appears with no corresponding emotion.
F
Ekman's theory states that if the emotion comes on slowly or is rather weak, the feeling might not be strong enough to trigger the expression. This would explain why there can sometimes be emotion without expression, he argues. In addition, cultural rules which determine when and whether people of certain cultures display emotional expressions can prevent this otherwise automatic process from being completed. Facial expressions evolved in humans as signals to others about how they feel, says Ekman. At times, though, it may be uncomfortable or inconvenient for us to let others know our emotions. But in the long run, over the course of evolution, it was useful to us as signalers: an angry look on someone's face may be a warning that they are preparing to behave in an angry fashion.
G
Although Fridlund disagrees with Ekman on certain matters, the two basically share the opinion that facial expressions indicate people's future actions. The area of dispute between Fridlund and Ekman draws attention away from their major areas of agreement, says Joseph Campos of the University of California. Indeed, he says, 'there is profound agreement that the face, along with the voice, body posture and hand gestures, forecasts to outside observers what people will do next.' He goes on to say, 'The face is a component [of emotion], but to make it the center of study of the human being experiencing an emotion is like saying the only thing you need to study in a car is the transmission. Not that the transmission is unimportant, but it's only part of an entire system.'
🔥 Đáp án & giải thích 2
14
E
Giải thích chi tiết
☺️ Ứng dụng Linearthinking để giải quyết dạng bài Matching Information
📌 Dạng Matching Information chúng ta nên làm cuối cùng, sau khi đã làm các dạng câu hỏi khác nhé DOLBIES, bởi vì lúc này mình đã đọc và hiểu nội dung của bài rồi, cộng thêm nghệ thuật Specify của Linearthinking → sẽ nhanh chóng tìm được vị trí đáp án hơn!!
-------
Step 01: Read the question to predict
Hiểu câu hỏi: A recognition that facial expressions do not always provide a true guide to feelings
Specify & Predict: Tìm đoạn chứa thông tin công nhận biểu cảm không phải lúc nào cũng phản ánh chính xác cảm xúc thật -> có thể được cụ thể hoá bằng ví dụ: trường hợp có emotion nhưng không có expression, hoặc có expression nhưng không có emotion.
-------
Step 02: Khoanh vùng đoạn văn
🔍 Từ khóa: “recognition", "facial expressions", "not always", "true guide to feelings"
-> Dựa vào các từ khoá trên, có thể khoanh vùng được đoạn E vì có xuất hiện các cụm như "not reliable one hundred percent of the time" (không đáng tin cậy 100% thời gian) -> tương ứng với "do not always provide a true guide".
Cụ thể:
"no basic facial expression is displayed" (không có biểu cảm nào được hiển thị dù có cảm xúc).
Và ngược lại: "expression appears with no corresponding emotion" (biểu cảm xuất hiện mà không có cảm xúc)
Set within treacherously steep cliffs, and hidden away valleys of northeast Brazil, is some of Southeast America’s most significant and spectacular rock-art. Most of the art so far discovered from the ongoing excavations comes from the archaeologically important National Park o’ the Serra da Capivara in the state of Piaui, and it is causing quite a controversy. The reason for the uproar? The art is being dated to around 25,000 or perhaps, according to some archaeologists, even 36,000 years ago. If correct, this is set to challenge the widely field view that the America were first colonized from the north, via the Bering Straits from eastern Siberia at around 10.000 BC, only moving down into Central and South America in the millennia thereafter.
Prior to the designation of 130,000 hectares as a National Park, the rock-art sites were difficult to get to and often dangerous to enter. In ancient times, this inaccessibility must have heightened the importance of the sites, and indeed of the people who painted on the rocks. Wild animals and human figures dominate the art and are incorporated into often-complex scenes involving hunting, supernatural beings, fighting and dancing. The artists depicted the animals that roamed the local ancient brushwood forest. The large mammals are usually painted in groups and tend to be shown a running stance, as though trying to escape from hunting parties. Processions – lines of human and animal figures – also appear of great impotence to these ancient artists. Might such lines represent family units or groups of warriors? On a number of panels, rows of stylized figures, some numbering up to 30 individual figures, were painted using the natural undulating contours of the rock surface, so evoking the contours of the seconding landscape. Other interesting, but very rare, occurrences are scenes that show small human figures holding on to and dancing around a tree, possibly involved in some tom of a ritual dance.
Due to the favourable climatic conditions, the imagery on many panels is in a remarkable state of preservation. Despite this, however, there are serious conservation issues that affect their long term survival. The chemical and mineral quantities of the rock on which the imagery is panted is fragile and on several panels it is unstable. As well as the secretion of sodium carbonate on the rock surface, complete panel sections have, over the ancient and recent past, broken away from the main rock surface. These have then become buried and sealed into sometimes-ancient floor deposits. Perversely, this form of natural erosion and subsequent deposition has assisted archaeologists in dating several major rock-art sites. Of course, dating the art is extremely difficult given the non-existence of plant and animal remains that might be scientifically dated. However, there am a small number of sites in the Serra da Capivara that are giving up their secrets through good systematic excavation. Thus, at Toca do Roqiomo da Pedra Furada. rock-art researcher Niéde Guidon managed to obtain a number of dates. At different levels of excavation, she located fallen painted rock fragments, which she was able to dale to at least 36,000 years ago. Along with toe painted fragments, crude stone tools were found. Also discovered wore a series of scientifically datable sites of fireplaces, or hearths, the earliest dated to 46,000 BC. arguably the oldest dates for human habitation in the America.
However, these conclusions are not without controversy. Critics, mainly from North America, have suggested that the hearths may in fact be a natural phenomenon, the result of seasonal brushwood fires. Several North American researchers have gone further and suggested that the rock art from this site dates from no earlier than about 3,730 years ago, based on the results of limited radiocarbon dating. Adding further fool to the general debate is the fact that the artists in the area of the National Hark tended not to draw over old motifs (as often occurs with rock-art), which makes it hard to work out the relative chronology of the images or styles. However, the diversity of imagery and tho narrative the paintings create from each of the many sites within the National Park suggests different artists were probably making their art at efferent times, and potentially using each site over many thousands of years.
With fierce debates thus raging over the dating, where these artists originate from is also still very much open to speculation. The traditional view ignores the early dating evidence from the South American rock-art sites. In a revised scenario, some palaeo–anthropologists are now suggesting that modern humans may’ have migrated from Africa using the strong currents of the Atlantic Ocean some 63.000 years or more ago, while others suggest a more improbable colonization coming from the Pacific Ocean. Yet, while ether hypothesis is plausible, there is still no supporting archaeological evidence between the South American coastline and the interior. Rather, it seems possible that there were a number of waves of human colonization of the Americas occurring possibly over a 60,000-100,000 year period, probably using the Bering Straits as a land bridge to cross into the Americas.
Despite the compelling evidence from South America, it stands alone: the earliest secure human evidence yet found in the state of Oregon in North America only dates to 12,300 years BC. So this is a fierce debate that is likely to go on for many more years. However, the splendid rock art and its allied anthropology of northeast of Brazil, described here, is playing a huge and significant role in the discussion.
🔥 Đáp án & giải thích 3
27
B
Giải thích chi tiết
☺️ Ứng dụng Linearthinking để giải quyết dạng Multiple Choice
Step 01: Read the question to understand
Simplified: According to the first paragraph the rock-art in Serra da Capivara may revolutionize accepted ideas about …?
-------
Step 02: Locate relevant information
🔍 Từ khoá: "first paragraph", “Serra da Capivara”, “rock-art", "accepted ideas"
→Đọc đoạn 1 và tìm thông tin về việc thách thức một quan điểm đã được chấp nhận rộng rãi.
-------
Step 03: Read relevant information to understand
📌 Trích dẫn:
“Most of the art … comes from … Serra da Capivara … The art is being dated to around 25,000 or … 36,000 years ago. If correct, this is set to challenge the widely held view that America was first colonised from the north … at around 10,000 BC, only moving down into Central and South America in the millennia thereafter.” (Đoạn 1)
Simplified: The art is being dated to 25,000 – 36,000 years ago
This is set to challenge the widely held view that America was first colonised from the north (around 10,000 BC) -> moving south after
Main idea: Niên đại 25–36 nghìn năm sẽ đảo lộn quan niệm về thời điểm con người đầu tiên tới Nam Mỹ (và châu Mỹ nói chung).
-------
Step 04: Compare meaning with meaning
❌ A. the way primitive people lived in North America –Đoạn trích không bàn đến cách sống của người tiền sử ở Bắc Mỹ → sai.
✅ B. the date when the earliest people arrived in South America –Trích dẫn cho thấy niên đại 25 000–36 000 năm thách thức quan điểm con người chỉ tới Nam Mỹ sau 10 000 TCN → Khớp với “the date when the earliest people arrived in South America” (“ngày mà những người đầu tiên đặt chân đến Nam Mỹ”).
❌ C. the origin of the people who crossed the Bering Straits –Đoạn nói việc khi họ tới Nam Mỹ, không bàn gốc gác/dân tộc của họ → sai.
❌ D. the variety of cultures which developed in South America – Không nhắc tới sự đa dạng văn hoá, chỉ nói vấn đề niên đại → sai.
Up until the first part of the 20th century, communications across the Australian continent were relatively undeveloped. Perth, the capital of Western Australia, remained isolated from Australia's eastern states until the Trans-Australian Railway (TAR) was built across the arid area known as the Nullarbor (No Trees) Plain. During the 19th century, the only form of transport between the west coast and the eastern cities was a long and often rough sea voyage across the Great Australian Bight, while the first east-west crossing of the Nullarbor Plain on foot was achieved by the English explorer Edward Eyre and his indigenous Australian guide Wylie in 1841. In 1877 a telegraph line was built across the plain, and it was this man-made structure that a mining engineer called Arthur Richardson followed, when he set out in 1896 to be the first to ride a bicycle around the Australian continent.
The first railway in Western Australia had opened in 1871, and by 1896 there was a 313-mile line going eastwards through the inhospitable landscape as far as Kalgoorlie. This line was built alongside a pipeline carrying drinking water to the arid goldfields around Kalgoorlie. Meanwhile, in the south-east of the continent, a railway line from Port Augusta to Oodnadetta had opened in 1891. These early railways in both the east and the west were built to the narrow gauge of 3ft 6in.
In 1901, the self-governing colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia got together to form a federation. One of the incentives held out to Western Australia to become a member had been the promise of a trans-continental railway linking Perth with the eastern cities. A survey of the route across the featureless Nullarbor Plain was completed in 1909, and construction started to join the two existing railways at each end in 1912. Despite the onset of the First World War, work progressed until the two lines finally converged, at a site in an area of desert, in 1917. The railway's claim to fame is that its route includes the longest stretch - 297 miles- of straight track in the world. Although the existing railways at each end had been built to the narrow gauge, the new 1,052 mile stretch was built to the standard gauge of 4ft 8in. These two breaks of gauge would mean a true trans-continental service did not exist until 1970.
Water supplies for steam engines on the TAR route were non-existent, as the railway did not cross a permanent watercourse along its entire length. To overcome this, the TAR line's original chief engineer had requested diesel engines, but his request was not granted, so steam haulage had to be supported by extra water tankers carried on each train. Australian-built, diesel electric engines eventually replaced steam haulage in 1951.
As well as being an important freight route, the new line saw the introduction of the Trans Australian Express, a service which commenced running in 1917 to serve isolated communities and settlements along its route. For much of its long-running life, this twice-weekly train consisted solely of sleeping cars; seated accommodation was only included from 1981 until the service terminated ten years later. The route of the train was extended following the conversion to standard gauge of its narrow-gauge sections in 1970, but facing increased competition from air travel it last ran in June 1991.
One long-lived curiosity of the trans-Australian network was the Tea and Sugar Train, which also started running in 1917. The train brought to communities along the route not only the necessities for everyday life, but also a butcher's shop, medical facilities and a cinema. It last ran in 1996.
Despite the withdrawal of the Trans-Australian Express between Adelaide and Perth in 1991, the Indian Pacific service has operated between Sydney on the east coast and Perth since 1970, the year that the TAR route was completely converted to standard gauge. This service is operated by Great Southern Rail. It runs twice a week between Adelaide and Perth, and once a week between Sydney and Perth. The journey time for the complete 2,704-mile journey is 66 hours westbound and 71 hours eastbound.
The Indian Pacific service calls by at the isolated outback railway settlements of Pimba, which has a population of around fifty, Kingoonya, which only has a hotel, and Tarcoola, which has a population of around forty and is a junction for the south-north line to Darwin. It then travels to Cook, which, despite having a population of fewer than ten, is a scheduled stop, before crossing the Nullarbor Plain in a dead straight line for 297 miles to Loongana, which is uninhabited and is a request stop, and Rawlinna, also a request stop serving Australia's largest sheep station. Civilisation is eventually reached at Kalgoorlie before the last leg of the journey westwards to East Perth Station. The train has carriages with seating, sleeping cars, a restaurant car, and wagons conveying passengers' motor cars.
was
a sea voyage
during the 19th century
Main idea: Hình thức giao thông duy nhất giữa bờ Tây và các thành phố phía Đông làmột chuyến đi bằng đường biển (sea voyage) trong thế kỷ 19.
B. Many took Ekman's work to imply that facial expressions precisely indicated people's feelings. However, this theory has been attacked by a number of psychologists, such as Alan Fridlund of the University of California, who claim that there is no one-to-one correspondence between facial expressions and emotions. Expressions evolved to set off certain behaviors in other people, says Fridlund. So a smile may prompt people to approach, a scowl may warn them to stay away, and a look of sadness may elicit words of sympathy and reassurance. In other words, in Fridlund's view, facial expressions are inherently social they involve not one, but two or more people. Even when people are alone they are holding a dialog with another person internally, or imagining themselves in a social situation.
C. Thus Fridlund thinks of facial expressions as tools for influencing social interactions, a view which, he claims, enables us to begin predicting when certain facial expressions will occur. This in turn will allow more precise theories about social interactions. His studies find that expressions occur most often during pivotal points, the turning points in social interactions during greetings, social crises, or times of appeasement, for example. At these pivotal points there is an approach, or closeness, or more intimacy, and facial expressions, as well as gestures, open up the possibilities of various social interactions.
D. Although much work on the emotions relies on a link between facial expression and emotions, psychologist James Russell, of the University of British Columbia, says there is very little evidence supporting such a connection. 'There's some sense in which faces express emotion, but only in the sense that everything expresses emotion,' says Russell, a long-time critic of the expression-emotion link. 'Music does, posture does, words do, tone of voice does, your behavior does. The real question is, "Is there anything special about faces?"" And there we really do not know much. What is more likely, argues Russell, is that facial expressions tell others something about a person's overall mood and context, rather than provide details about specific emotions.
E. Others, including Ekman, argue that the face can display information about emotions, but they admit that it is not reliable one hundred percent of the time. And those who only examine faces when trying to study emotion will jump to false conclusions. But according to Ekman, to say, as Fridlund does, that there is no connection at all between facial expressions and emotions is simply wrong. 'There is a link between facial expression and emotion,' agrees developmental psychologist Linda Camras of DePaul University, 'but it's not a one-to-one kind of relationship as many once thought.' She believes there are many situations where emotion is experienced, yet no basic facial expression is displayed. And there are times when a facial expression appears with no corresponding emotion.
F. Ekman's theory states that if the emotion comes on slowly or is rather weak, the feeling might not be strong enough to trigger the expression. This would explain why there can sometimes be emotion without expression, he argues. In addition, cultural rules which determine when and whether people of certain cultures display emotional expressions can prevent this otherwise automatic process from being completed. Facial expressions evolved in humans as signals to others about how they feel, says Ekman. At times, though, it may be uncomfortable or inconvenient for us to let others know our emotions. But in the long run, over the course of evolution, it was useful to us as signalers: an angry look on someone's face may be a warning that they are preparing to behave in an angry fashion.
G. Although Fridlund disagrees with Ekman on certain matters, the two basically share the opinion that facial expressions indicate people's future actions. The area of dispute between Fridlund and Ekman draws attention away from their major areas of agreement, says Joseph Campos of the University of California. Indeed, he says, 'there is profound agreement that the face, along with the voice, body posture and hand gestures, forecasts to outside observers what people will do next.' He goes on to say, 'The face is a component [of emotion], but to make it the center of study of the human being experiencing an emotion is like saying the only thing you need to study in a car is the transmission. Not that the transmission is unimportant, but it's only part of an entire system.'
Set within treacherously steep cliffs, and hidden away valleys of northeast Brazil, is some of Southeast America’s most significant and spectacular rock-art. Most of the art so far discovered from the ongoing excavations comes from the archaeologically important National Park o’ the Serra da Capivara in the state of Piaui, and it is causing quite a controversy. The reason for the uproar? The art is being dated to around 25,000 or perhaps, according to some archaeologists, even 36,000 years ago. If correct, this is set to challenge the widely field view that the America were first colonized from the north, via the Bering Straits from eastern Siberia at around 10.000 BC, only moving down into Central and South America in the millennia thereafter.
Prior to the designation of 130,000 hectares as a National Park, the rock-art sites were difficult to get to and often dangerous to enter. In ancient times, this inaccessibility must have heightened the importance of the sites, and indeed of the people who painted on the rocks. Wild animals and human figures dominate the art and are incorporated into often-complex scenes involving hunting, supernatural beings, fighting and dancing. The artists depicted the animals that roamed the local ancient brushwood forest. The large mammals are usually painted in groups and tend to be shown a running stance, as though trying to escape from hunting parties. Processions – lines of human and animal figures – also appear of great impotence to these ancient artists. Might such lines represent family units or groups of warriors? On a number of panels, rows of stylized figures, some numbering up to 30 individual figures, were painted using the natural undulating contours of the rock surface, so evoking the contours of the seconding landscape. Other interesting, but very rare, occurrences are scenes that show small human figures holding on to and dancing around a tree, possibly involved in some tom of a ritual dance.
Due to the favourable climatic conditions, the imagery on many panels is in a remarkable state of preservation. Despite this, however, there are serious conservation issues that affect their long term survival. The chemical and mineral quantities of the rock on which the imagery is panted is fragile and on several panels it is unstable. As well as the secretion of sodium carbonate on the rock surface, complete panel sections have, over the ancient and recent past, broken away from the main rock surface. These have then become buried and sealed into sometimes-ancient floor deposits. Perversely, this form of natural erosion and subsequent deposition has assisted archaeologists in dating several major rock-art sites. Of course, dating the art is extremely difficult given the non-existence of plant and animal remains that might be scientifically dated. However, there am a small number of sites in the Serra da Capivara that are giving up their secrets through good systematic excavation. Thus, at Toca do Roqiomo da Pedra Furada. rock-art researcher Niéde Guidon managed to obtain a number of dates. At different levels of excavation, she located fallen painted rock fragments, which she was able to dale to at least 36,000 years ago. Along with toe painted fragments, crude stone tools were found. Also discovered wore a series of scientifically datable sites of fireplaces, or hearths, the earliest dated to 46,000 BC. arguably the oldest dates for human habitation in the America.
However, these conclusions are not without controversy. Critics, mainly from North America, have suggested that the hearths may in fact be a natural phenomenon, the result of seasonal brushwood fires. Several North American researchers have gone further and suggested that the rock art from this site dates from no earlier than about 3,730 years ago, based on the results of limited radiocarbon dating. Adding further fool to the general debate is the fact that the artists in the area of the National Hark tended not to draw over old motifs (as often occurs with rock-art), which makes it hard to work out the relative chronology of the images or styles. However, the diversity of imagery and tho narrative the paintings create from each of the many sites within the National Park suggests different artists were probably making their art at efferent times, and potentially using each site over many thousands of years.
With fierce debates thus raging over the dating, where these artists originate from is also still very much open to speculation. The traditional view ignores the early dating evidence from the South American rock-art sites. In a revised scenario, some palaeo–anthropologists are now suggesting that modern humans may’ have migrated from Africa using the strong currents of the Atlantic Ocean some 63.000 years or more ago, while others suggest a more improbable colonization coming from the Pacific Ocean. Yet, while ether hypothesis is plausible, there is still no supporting archaeological evidence between the South American coastline and the interior. Rather, it seems possible that there were a number of waves of human colonization of the Americas occurring possibly over a 60,000-100,000 year period, probably using the Bering Straits as a land bridge to cross into the Americas.
Despite the compelling evidence from South America, it stands alone: the earliest secure human evidence yet found in the state of Oregon in North America only dates to 12,300 years BC. So this is a fierce debate that is likely to go on for many more years. However, the splendid rock art and its allied anthropology of northeast of Brazil, described here, is playing a huge and significant role in the discussion.
Simplified: The art is being dated to 25,000 – 36,000 years ago
This is set to challenge the widely held view that America was first colonised from the north (around 10,000 BC) -> moving south after
