IELTS Real Reading Test 2025 - Q1 Test 1 with Practice Test, Answers And Explanation
Luyện tập đề IELTS Real Reading Test 2025 - Q1 Test 1 được lấy từ cuốn sách Real Test 2025 - Q1 với trải nghiệm thi IELTS trên máy và giải thích đáp án chi tiết bằng Linearthinking, kèm answer key và list từ vựng IELTS cần học trong bài đọc.
IELTS Real Reading Test 2025 - Q1 Test 1 with Practice Test, Answers And Explanation
Passage
❓ Câu hỏi passage 1
Question 1 - 6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
1
The appearance of amber changes over time.
2
In ancient times, the amber found on Baltic beaches came from trees growing nearby.
3
All protective amulets in ancient Egypt and Greece contained amber.
4
It is clear why people assumed that amber had healing properties.
5
One name for amber comes from its effect on other objects.
6
Aristotle's definition of amber supported its link to a goddess.
Question 7 - 13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Amber in the Ancient World
Bronze Age
- Amber was:
Traded in exchange for various
7.
.
Transported through Europe along
8.
.
Used as a symbol of status by royalty and
9.
in western Asia.
Iron Age
- 9th century BCE discoveries include:
10.
made of amber used in jewellery.
Decorative pieces of amber, used on
11.
which have not survived.
Amber ornaments made by the Etruscans in the shape of people and
12.
.
Roman Empire
- Amber goods, e.g.,
13.
, were made for wealthy households.
Passage
❓ Câu hỏi passage 2
Question 14 - 17
Reading Passage has eight paragraphs A-H
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H
14
A description of the characteristics common to songs with earworms.
15
A justification for research into earworms.
16
A description of the brain's reaction to known and unknown songs.
17
Details of proposed research into the frequency with which earworms occur in different age groups.
Question 18 - 21
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Goldsmiths study
Researchers from Goldsmiths concluded that the music we imagine in our minds is quite similar to recordings. They proved this by asking volunteers to record the rhythm of music using a monitor on their . Further research has demonstrated that those who hear earworms more frequently have brains that may deal with differently from other people. Dr Stewart also believes that the brain is by earworms when it is not focused on a task. In fact, a reduction in the occurrence of earworms was found to be directly related to how the task was. Interestingly, volunteers' diaries revealed that the songs they heard inside their head reflected their moods, so the choice of music is not accidental.
Question 22 - 26
Look at the following statements and the list of researchers below.
Match each statement with the correct researcher, A-D.
Write the correct letter, A-D.
List of Findings
A
Lauren Stewart
B
Ira Hyman
C
Andrea Halpern
D
John Seabrook
22
Some musicians create music that is intentionally memorable.
23
People are unable to completely regulate how they think.
24
We can remember songs without knowing that we have heard them.
25
Thinking about music has a similar effect on the brain to hearing music.
26
Earworms are more persistent when only a short section of the song is constantly replayed.
Passage
❓ Câu hỏi passage 3
Question 27 - 31
Reading Passage has eight paragraphs A-H
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Choose the correct letter, A-HNB You may use any letter more than once.
27
the part of cocoa trees used for chocolate production
28
annual chocolate consumption per capita in the United States
29
the higher likelihood of cultivated cocoa trees being attacked by insects
30
a community which developed a preference for sweetened chocolate beverages
31
an approach by which ancient Mexicans could acquire cocoa beans
Question 32 - 36
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
32
The Mayan ruling class forbade the use of cocoa and chocolate in rituals.
33
The Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés had made an investment in chocolate and chocolate beverages.
34
Wild cocoa trees are more susceptible to infectious diseases than cultivated ones.
35
During chocolate production, a part of the seed is discarded.
36
Chocolate enjoys more prestige in Europe and the United States than in any other country.
Question 37 - 40
Complete the flow-chart below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
From Cocoa Beans to Chocolate
STEP 01
Seeds
classifying, cleaning, roasting and stripping their
STEP 02
Nibs
STEP 03
Crushing
producing mixing with measured quantities of substances such as sweeteners, liquid dairy, and
STEP 04
Crumb blending
crushing finely to obtain a smooth texture manufacturing diverse shapes of chocolate in
STEP 05
Chocolate
DOL IELTS Đình Lực
05/05/2026
📖 Bài đọc passage 1
Amber
Amber is a yellowish semi-precious substance, formed in prehistoric times from the hardened and fossilised resin of coniferous pine trees. It has been used for thousands of years to make jewellery and other decorative objects, being relatively soft and easy to work. Amber can also be polished to produce an attractive gleam. One disadvantage is that it is susceptible to degradation, becoming cloudy as the colours gradually fade following exposure to air. For this reason, many amber artefacts do not look as impressive as they did when they were first made.
For the ancient world, the main source of amber was the Baltic region in northern Europe, on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, where pieces washed onto beaches and could be easily collected. Amber was sought after not only for its decorative appeal, but also because many thought that it gave protection against evil. For this reason, people in ancient Egypt and Greece wore or carried small ornaments known as "amulets', and those made with amber were said to be among the most powerful. There was a belief it could cure mouth and throat complaints, and it was also ground and mixed with rose oil and honey to treat eye and ear infections. As amber naturally contains succinic acid, which was used in treatments prior to the use of antibiotics, this belief in its medicinal qualities was quite reasonable. The ancients also noticed that when rubbed, amber produced an electrical charge that drew other objects towards it. This ability to attract objects such as dried grasses led to the Persians calling amber kahruba or straw-robber'.
The ancient world also had popular myths about amber's origins, such as the story that it was the crystallised tears of a Greek goddess whose son was killed by a bolt of lightning. Colourful though such stories were, even people of the time may not have taken them too seriously, as writers such as the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) had already correctly identified amber as a hardened resin. In addition, a number of myths about amber involved trees, indicating an awareness of its true origins.
In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer and philosopher Pliny the Elder classified precious stones and materials, including amber. He was dismissive of many earlier myths about it and acknowledged the fact that amber was collected from Baltic shores. He also agreed with assertions that amber originated from pine trees, writing that if amber was burnt, it smelled of pine. He also knew it originally existed in a liquid state because of the trapped insects sometimes seen inside larger pieces. He did not, however, grasp the concept of fossilisation, instead explaining the hardening of resin as a process performed by the sea.
The earliest evidence of people working with amber in the Baltic dates to the Neolithic period (approx. 6000-2200 BCE). But it was contact between the peoples of the Bronze Age (approx. 2200-800 BC:) that ensured amber spread across Europe, with various tribes trading pieces of amber and receiving metals in return. Amber was taken south from the Baltic via rivers to the Adriatic Sea, from where it was shipped to western Asia. Perhaps because of its rarity so far from its source, amber was particularly prized in this region, where it signified power and social standing for kings and queens. Priests were another group that wore amber as a mark of distinction. Some amber beaded jewellery has been discovered in tombs in ancient Egypt, although finds here are uncommon.
During the Iron Age, the east coast of modern-day Italy became something of a specialist in amber. By the 9th century BCE, the coastal region of Verucchio had become an important manufacturing centre. Here, significant quantities of artefacts have been found, including amber discs for earrings and necklaces, and amber that would have been an embellishment for clothes that have disintegrated over time. The Etruscans, who flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd centuries BCE, continued working with amber, creating fine jewellery and small figurines of animals and humans.
Although amber seems to have gone out of fashion during the Greek Classical period (500-300 BCE), it saw a resurgence in popularity during the Roman Empire (31 BCE - 476 CE). Aquileia, in central Italy, became a noted centre of production between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. Amber workshops in this region produced many objects such as drinking goblets, which were sold for high prices to rich Romans for use in their homes. Its reputation as a protective talisman continued and it was widely used by Romans, in particular gladiators (men trained to fight in arenas for sport), who attached pieces of amber to their fighting equipment to ward off danger. The Romans' use of amber declined from the 3rd century CE, but it remained popular in the Baltic regions. In the medieval period, the Armenians became the new champions of amber, and ensured its trade and manufacture into fine decorative pieces continued into modern times.
🔥 Đáp án & giải thích 1
1
True
Giải thích chi tiết
☺️ Ứng dụng Linearthinking để giải quyết dạng bài True / False / Not Given
Step 01: Read the question to understand (main idea + detail)
Simplified: The appearance of amber changes over time .
-> Cần xác định xem vẻ bề ngoài của amber (hổ phách) có thay đổi theo thời gian hay không.
-------
Step 02: Locate relevant information
🔍 Từ khóa: “appearance”, “amber”, “changes”, “over time”
-> Dựa vào các từ khoá trên, có thể tìm được trích dẫn ở đoạn 1.
-------
Step 03: Read relevant information to understand (main + detail)
📌 Trích dẫn: “it is susceptible to degradation, becoming cloudy as the colours gradually fade following exposure to air.” (Đoạn 1)
Simplified: Amber is susceptible to degradation → Cụ thể: becoming cloudy + colours gradually fading with air exposure .
-------
Step 04: Compare meaning with meaning
Trong bài đọc: Hổ phách bị xuống cấp theo thời gian → trở nên đục + màu sắc phai nhạt dần khi tiếp xúc không khí.
Trong câu hỏi: Ngoại hình của hổ phách thay đổi theo thời gian.
⇒ ✅ Chọn: TRUE
-------
Lí do các đáp án khác sai:
Nếu là False → Bài đọc phải nói rằng hổ phách không thay đổi theo thời gian, hoặc nó luôn giữ được màu sắc ban đầu → nhưng thực tế lại có sự phai nhạt.
Nếu là Not Given → Bài đọc không nhắc tới việc ngoại hình thay đổi theo thời gian → nhưng ở đây có bằng chứng rõ ràng “becoming cloudy … colours fade … over time”.
Scientists investigate 'earworms', the music we can't get out of our head
A
A. Ever had a song stuck in your head, playing on an endless loop? Scientists call them 'involuntary musical images', or 'earworms, and a wave of new research is shining light on why they occur and what can be learned from them. Some neuroscientists and cognitive psychologists are studying earworms to explore the mysteries of memory and the part of the brain that is beyond our conscious control. The idea that we have full control over our thought processes is an illusion,' says psychologist Lauren Stewart, who founded the master's program in music, mind and brain at Goldsmiths, University of London, UK, where recent research has taken place. Researchers haven't been able to watch what happens in the brain when earworms occur, because they happen unpredictably. Much of what is known about them comes from surveys, questionnaires, diaries and lab experiments.
B
A Goldsmiths study published in the journal Memory and Cognition this year showed that the singing we hear in our heads tends to be true to actual recordings. Researchers had 17 volunteers tap to the beat of any earworm they heard during a four-day period while a device attached to their wrist recorded their movements. The tapping tempos were within 10% of the tempos of the original recordings. Another Goldsmiths study, published this year in Consciousness and Cognition, found that people who report hearing earworms often, and find them most intrusive, have slightly different brain structures, with more gray matter in areas associated with processing emotions.
C
Studies also show that the music in our heads often starts playing during times of 'low cognitive load', such as while showering, getting dressed, walking, or doing chores. Dr Stewart likens earworms to 'sonic screen savers' that keep the mind entertained while it is otherwise unoccupied. She and her colleagues tested that theory by having volunteers listen to songs and giving them various tasks afterwards. The volunteers who sat idly for the next five minutes were the most likely to report hearing the music m their heads. Dr Stewart observed that the more challenging the activity, the less likely the volunteers were to hear the music. Diary studies also show songs tend to match people's moods and therefore they are not random. If you are energized and upbeat, an earworm that occurs is likely to be uptempo too.
D
Songs the brain fixates on are usually those it has been exposed to recently, surveys show, which is why tunes getting heavy radio play frequently top the earworm charts. Even tunes you may have heard but didn't pay attention to can worm their way into your subconscious, says Ira Hyman, a psychologist at Western Washington University in Bellingham, USA. In an unpublished study there, participants who listened to music while doing other tasks were more likely to report that the songs returned as earworms later on, compared with participants who simply listened.
E
Some earworms are just fragments of a song that repeat like a broken record. So, when the mind hits a part of a song it can't remember, it loops back rather than moving on. That could make an earworm even more entrenched, Dr Hyman says. According to a theory known as the Zeigarik effect, named for a Soviet psychologist, Bluma Zeigarnik, unfinished thoughts and activities weigh on the mind more heavily than those that are completed, although experiments exposing students to interrupted songs have yielded mixed results.
F
Researchers say they can't pinpoint a spot in the brain where earworms live. Imaging studies by Andrea Halpern at Bucknell University, in Lewisburg, USA, have shown that deliberately imagining music and actually listening to music activate many of the same neurological networks. Dr Halpern's earlier studies showed that when subjects listened to the first few notes of familiar music, areas in the right frontal and superior temporal portions of the brain became activated, along with the supplementary motor area at the top, which is typically involved in remembering sequences. When the same subjects listened to unfamiliar music and were asked to recall it, there was activity in the left frontal portions of the brain instead.
G
One factor that makes some songs stick might be repetition. 'Repetition leads to familiarity which leads to anticipation, which is satisfied by hearing the song,' says John Seabrook, author of The Song Machine: Inside the Hit Factory, about how producers pump pop songs full of aural "hooks', the punchy melodic phrases designed to target the brain and leave it wanting more. The researchers are comparing the melodic structure of 100 often-mentioned songs with 100 similarly popular songs that weren't cited as earworms, to assess the difference. Songs with earworm potential appear to share certain features: a repeating pattern of ups and downs in pitch, and an irregular musical interval.
H
The researchers plan next to test their results in reverse, and play ringtones from songs of both the earworm and non earworm variety for volunteers several times a day to see which ones get stuck. Drs Stewart and Halper are now working together to recruit survey participants for a study looking at whether people at different stages of life experience earworms differently. 'You can argue that older people might get them more often because they know more songs,' Dr Halpern says. 'But the few responses we have so far indicate that they have earworms less often. It could be that they don't play music as often as younger people do.
🔥 Đáp án & giải thích 2
14
G
Giải thích chi tiết
☺️ Ứng dụng Linearthinking để giải quyết dạng bài Matching Information
📌 Dạng Matching Information chúng ta nên làm cuối cùng, sau khi đã làm các dạng câu hỏi khác nhé DOLBIES, bởi vì lúc này mình đã đọc và hiểu nội dung của bài rồi, cộng thêm nghệ thuật Specify của Linearthinking → sẽ nhanh chóng tìm được vị trí đáp án hơn!!
-------
Step 01: Read the question to predict
Hiểu câu hỏi: A description of the characteristics common to songs with earworms
Specify & Predict: Tìm đoạn văn liệt kê các yếu tố kỹ thuật âm nhạc khiến một bài hát dễ bị kẹt trong đầu, ví dụ: nhịp điệu lặp lại, cao độ, giai điệu đơn giản...
-------
Step 02: Khoanh vùng đoạn văn
🔍 Từ khóa: “description", "characteristics", "songs", "earworms"
-> Dựa vào các từ khoá trên, có thể khoanh vùng được đoạn G vì có xuất hiện các cụm như "share certain features" (chia sẻ những đặc điểm nhất định) -> tương đương với "characteristics common"; "repeating pattern of ups and downs in pitch" (mô hình lặp lại của cao độ lên và xuống) và "irregular musical interval" (khoảng cách âm nhạc không đều) -> Đây là ví dụ cụ thể cho "description of the characteristics".
A. Chocolate is now perceived as a ubiquitous indulgence, whether consumed as confectionery or a beverage, readily accessible in global markets. However, it may come as a surprise that chocolate was once regarded as a commodity of extraordinary value. The discovery of the cocoa tree, the source of chocolate, occurred approximately 2,000 years ago in the lush tropical rain forests of the Americas. The evolution of the chocolate — from a regionally significant Mesoamerican drink to globally consumed confectionery — has been shaped through cross-continental cultural exchanges and the successive influences of multiple civilisations.
B
Historians suggest that the ancient Maya pioneered cocoa tree cultivation in Mesoamerica, with evidence dating back approximately 2,000 years. They transplanted cocoa trees from the dense rain forest into their domesticated gardens, where cocoa beans were initially roasted and ground into a smooth paste. The paste was combined with spices and water to produce unsweetened chocolate beverages. The Maya also employed a distinctive technique of transferring the liquid back and forth between containers, generating a foamy layer on the drink's surface.
C
Cocoa and chocolate were integral to Maya culture, commonly depicted in their architectural structures and artistic works. While the aristocracy, particularly the royal families, consumed chocolate during elaborate ceremonies, even less privileged groups occasionally savoured the drink. Furthermore, cocoa beans served as a powerful emblem of marital union and were ritually exchanged during wedding ceremonies.
D
The Aztec civilisation in Mexico regarded chocolate as a prestigious commodity, despite being geographically unable to cultivate cocoa trees within their heartland. Accordingly, they sourced cocoa beans through extensive trade networks, even utilising them as currency for tax payments. Chocolate held an exclusive function within Aztec imperial and religious ceremonies, where priests offered cocoa beans as divine offerings and prepared sacred chocolate drinks. Due to the scarcity of cocoa beans, consumption remained restricted to the societal elite, with historical accounts suggesting Emperor Montezuma consumed up to 50 cups daily. Linguists trace the term 'chocolate' to the Aztec Nahuatl word xocolatl, meaning 'bitter water' in the Nahuatl language, though some scholars argue that it has hybrid origins combining Maya and Nahuatl linguistic elements.
E
In 1502, explorer Christopher Columbus introduced cocoa beans to Spain after voyaging to Mesoamerica, and later Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés quickly recognised the potential economic value of chocolate. Upon arriving in present-day Mexico in 1519, Cortés observed that chocolate beverages would appeal to the Spanish. After conquering the Aztec Empire, Spanish forces exported confiscated cocoa supplies to Spain. In response to the growing demand, Spain began cultivating cocoa trees in its American colonies. Spanish elite first developed a taste for sweetened chocolate drinks, but the beverage rapidly spread across Europe. England, the Netherlands, and France followed suit by establishing cocoa plantations in their own colonies. By the 18th century, chocolate remained primarily a luxury restricted to the affluent. However, the Industrial Revolution's technologies enabled mechanised production, dramatically reducing costs and making chocolate available to a broader population.
F
Cocoa trees are cultivated across multiple countries in Africa, Mesoamerica, and South America, thriving in cool, shaded environments within equatorial zones. Despite widespread cultivation, cocoa farming remains labour-intensive, due to the trees' requirement for specific water thresholds, temperature ranges, soil compositions, and protection from environmental threats. Approximately five years after planting, cocoa trees begin to yield large, pod-shaped fruits that grow on the trunk. These pods contain the beans used in chocolate production. While several types of cocoa trees exist, the bulk of the chocolate is produced from the seeds of the most commonly cultivated varieties.
However, farmers opt to grow more specialised types, such as Criollo or Trinitario, valued for distinctive flavour profiles. Unexpectedly, cocoa trees grown on farms are more vulnerable to disease and pests than their wild counterparts. Cocoa cultivation presents a strenuous endeavour for farmers, who sell their harvests on futures markets. exposing their incomes to external market fluctuations.
G
The process of chocolate production involves a series of steps, carried out in specialised factories where cocoa beans are meticulously processed. Workers first sort, clean, and roast the beans before extracting the outer shells, leaving only the inner nibs. These nibs are then ground into a dense paste known as chocolate liquor, which is subsequently separated into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Following standardised formulations, chocolate manufacturers blend the chocolate liquor with precise ratios of sugar, milk, and cocoa butter. The resulting mixture, often referred to as the 'crumb', undergoes fine grinding to create a smooth consistency. Finally, the mixture is then subjected to two additional processes — conching and tempering — before being placed into molds to create various forms, such as bars or other chocolate products.
H
Chocolate holds significant global economic value, with the manufacturing industry generating over $5 billion annually from cocoa crops, and its reputation remains most prominent in Europe and the United States. For instance, US cocoa product imports reached $1.4 billion in 2005. On average, Americans consume over five kilograms of chocolate per person each year. In addition, upscale chocolate boutiques, which offer premium chocolates, have gained significant popularity. Many of these shops specialise in artisanal chocolates, crafted with unique flavour profiles. Renowned chocolate brands such as Cadbury, Godiva, Lindt, and Ferrero Rocher dominate the market. However, the cocoa and chocolate production sectors often face challenges related to fair trade, sustainable development, and environmental preservation. These issues are now being actively addressed by industry stakeholders, including officials, activists, and researchers, who are working closely with farmers to promote farming practices that foster sustainability and protect the environment.
🔥 Đáp án & giải thích 3
27
F
Giải thích chi tiết
☺️ Ứng dụng Linearthinking để giải quyết dạng bài Matching Information
📌 Dạng Matching Information chúng ta nên làm cuối cùng, sau khi đã làm các dạng câu hỏi khác nhé DOLBIES, bởi vì lúc này mình đã đọc và hiểu nội dung của bài rồi, cộng thêm nghệ thuật Specify của Linearthinking → sẽ nhanh chóng tìm được vị trí đáp án hơn!!
Step 01: Read the question to predict
Hiểu câu hỏi: The part of cocoa trees used for chocolate production
Specify & Predict: Tìm đoạn mô tả bộ phận cụ thể của cây cacao được dùng để sản xuất sô cô la, ví dụ: lá, hoa, hạt, quả …
-------
Step 02: Khoanh vùng đoạn văn
🔍 Từ khóa: “part”, “cocoa trees”, “chocolate production”
→ Dựa vào các từ khoá trên, có thể khoanh vùng được đoạn F vì có xuất hiện các cụm như "pods" (quả dạng vỏ); "contain the beans" (chứa hạt); và "beans used in chocolate production" (hạt được dùng để sản xuất chocolate) → Đây là ví dụ cụ thể cho các bộ phận của cây ca cao được sử dụng để sản xuất sô cô la.
Amber is a yellowish semi-precious substance, formed in prehistoric times from the hardened and fossilised resin of coniferous pine trees. It has been used for thousands of years to make jewellery and other decorative objects, being relatively soft and easy to work. Amber can also be polished to produce an attractive gleam. One disadvantage is that it is susceptible to degradation, becoming cloudy as the colours gradually fade following exposure to air. For this reason, many amber artefacts do not look as impressive as they did when they were first made.
For the ancient world, the main source of amber was the Baltic region in northern Europe, on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, where pieces washed onto beaches and could be easily collected. Amber was sought after not only for its decorative appeal, but also because many thought that it gave protection against evil. For this reason, people in ancient Egypt and Greece wore or carried small ornaments known as "amulets', and those made with amber were said to be among the most powerful. There was a belief it could cure mouth and throat complaints, and it was also ground and mixed with rose oil and honey to treat eye and ear infections. As amber naturally contains succinic acid, which was used in treatments prior to the use of antibiotics, this belief in its medicinal qualities was quite reasonable. The ancients also noticed that when rubbed, amber produced an electrical charge that drew other objects towards it. This ability to attract objects such as dried grasses led to the Persians calling amber kahruba or straw-robber'.
The ancient world also had popular myths about amber's origins, such as the story that it was the crystallised tears of a Greek goddess whose son was killed by a bolt of lightning. Colourful though such stories were, even people of the time may not have taken them too seriously, as writers such as the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) had already correctly identified amber as a hardened resin. In addition, a number of myths about amber involved trees, indicating an awareness of its true origins.
In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer and philosopher Pliny the Elder classified precious stones and materials, including amber. He was dismissive of many earlier myths about it and acknowledged the fact that amber was collected from Baltic shores. He also agreed with assertions that amber originated from pine trees, writing that if amber was burnt, it smelled of pine. He also knew it originally existed in a liquid state because of the trapped insects sometimes seen inside larger pieces. He did not, however, grasp the concept of fossilisation, instead explaining the hardening of resin as a process performed by the sea.
The earliest evidence of people working with amber in the Baltic dates to the Neolithic period (approx. 6000-2200 BCE). But it was contact between the peoples of the Bronze Age (approx. 2200-800 BC:) that ensured amber spread across Europe, with various tribes trading pieces of amber and receiving metals in return. Amber was taken south from the Baltic via rivers to the Adriatic Sea, from where it was shipped to western Asia. Perhaps because of its rarity so far from its source, amber was particularly prized in this region, where it signified power and social standing for kings and queens. Priests were another group that wore amber as a mark of distinction. Some amber beaded jewellery has been discovered in tombs in ancient Egypt, although finds here are uncommon.
During the Iron Age, the east coast of modern-day Italy became something of a specialist in amber. By the 9th century BCE, the coastal region of Verucchio had become an important manufacturing centre. Here, significant quantities of artefacts have been found, including amber discs for earrings and necklaces, and amber that would have been an embellishment for clothes that have disintegrated over time. The Etruscans, who flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd centuries BCE, continued working with amber, creating fine jewellery and small figurines of animals and humans.
Although amber seems to have gone out of fashion during the Greek Classical period (500-300 BCE), it saw a resurgence in popularity during the Roman Empire (31 BCE - 476 CE). Aquileia, in central Italy, became a noted centre of production between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. Amber workshops in this region produced many objects such as drinking goblets, which were sold for high prices to rich Romans for use in their homes. Its reputation as a protective talisman continued and it was widely used by Romans, in particular gladiators (men trained to fight in arenas for sport), who attached pieces of amber to their fighting equipment to ward off danger. The Romans' use of amber declined from the 3rd century CE, but it remained popular in the Baltic regions. In the medieval period, the Armenians became the new champions of amber, and ensured its trade and manufacture into fine decorative pieces continued into modern times.
B. A Goldsmiths study published in the journal Memory and Cognition this year showed that the singing we hear in our heads tends to be true to actual recordings. Researchers had 17 volunteers tap to the beat of any earworm they heard during a four-day period while a device attached to their wrist recorded their movements. The tapping tempos were within 10% of the tempos of the original recordings. Another Goldsmiths study, published this year in Consciousness and Cognition, found that people who report hearing earworms often, and find them most intrusive, have slightly different brain structures, with more gray matter in areas associated with processing emotions.
C. Studies also show that the music in our heads often starts playing during times of 'low cognitive load', such as while showering, getting dressed, walking, or doing chores. Dr Stewart likens earworms to 'sonic screen savers' that keep the mind entertained while it is otherwise unoccupied. She and her colleagues tested that theory by having volunteers listen to songs and giving them various tasks afterwards. The volunteers who sat idly for the next five minutes were the most likely to report hearing the music m their heads. Dr Stewart observed that the more challenging the activity, the less likely the volunteers were to hear the music. Diary studies also show songs tend to match people's moods and therefore they are not random. If you are energized and upbeat, an earworm that occurs is likely to be uptempo too.
D. Songs the brain fixates on are usually those it has been exposed to recently, surveys show, which is why tunes getting heavy radio play frequently top the earworm charts. Even tunes you may have heard but didn't pay attention to can worm their way into your subconscious, says Ira Hyman, a psychologist at Western Washington University in Bellingham, USA. In an unpublished study there, participants who listened to music while doing other tasks were more likely to report that the songs returned as earworms later on, compared with participants who simply listened.
E. Some earworms are just fragments of a song that repeat like a broken record. So, when the mind hits a part of a song it can't remember, it loops back rather than moving on. That could make an earworm even more entrenched, Dr Hyman says. According to a theory known as the Zeigarik effect, named for a Soviet psychologist, Bluma Zeigarnik, unfinished thoughts and activities weigh on the mind more heavily than those that are completed, although experiments exposing students to interrupted songs have yielded mixed results.
F. Researchers say they can't pinpoint a spot in the brain where earworms live. Imaging studies by Andrea Halpern at Bucknell University, in Lewisburg, USA, have shown that deliberately imagining music and actually listening to music activate many of the same neurological networks. Dr Halpern's earlier studies showed that when subjects listened to the first few notes of familiar music, areas in the right frontal and superior temporal portions of the brain became activated, along with the supplementary motor area at the top, which is typically involved in remembering sequences. When the same subjects listened to unfamiliar music and were asked to recall it, there was activity in the left frontal portions of the brain instead.
G. One factor that makes some songs stick might be repetition. 'Repetition leads to familiarity which leads to anticipation, which is satisfied by hearing the song,' says John Seabrook, author of The Song Machine: Inside the Hit Factory, about how producers pump pop songs full of aural "hooks', the punchy melodic phrases designed to target the brain and leave it wanting more. The researchers are comparing the melodic structure of 100 often-mentioned songs with 100 similarly popular songs that weren't cited as earworms, to assess the difference. Songs with earworm potential appear to share certain features: a repeating pattern of ups and downs in pitch, and an irregular musical interval.
H. The researchers plan next to test their results in reverse, and play ringtones from songs of both the earworm and non earworm variety for volunteers several times a day to see which ones get stuck. Drs Stewart and Halper are now working together to recruit survey participants for a study looking at whether people at different stages of life experience earworms differently. 'You can argue that older people might get them more often because they know more songs,' Dr Halpern says. 'But the few responses we have so far indicate that they have earworms less often. It could be that they don't play music as often as younger people do.
B. Historians suggest that the ancient Maya pioneered cocoa tree cultivation in Mesoamerica, with evidence dating back approximately 2,000 years. They transplanted cocoa trees from the dense rain forest into their domesticated gardens, where cocoa beans were initially roasted and ground into a smooth paste. The paste was combined with spices and water to produce unsweetened chocolate beverages. The Maya also employed a distinctive technique of transferring the liquid back and forth between containers, generating a foamy layer on the drink's surface.
C. Cocoa and chocolate were integral to Maya culture, commonly depicted in their architectural structures and artistic works. While the aristocracy, particularly the royal families, consumed chocolate during elaborate ceremonies, even less privileged groups occasionally savoured the drink. Furthermore, cocoa beans served as a powerful emblem of marital union and were ritually exchanged during wedding ceremonies.
D. The Aztec civilisation in Mexico regarded chocolate as a prestigious commodity, despite being geographically unable to cultivate cocoa trees within their heartland. Accordingly, they sourced cocoa beans through extensive trade networks, even utilising them as currency for tax payments. Chocolate held an exclusive function within Aztec imperial and religious ceremonies, where priests offered cocoa beans as divine offerings and prepared sacred chocolate drinks. Due to the scarcity of cocoa beans, consumption remained restricted to the societal elite, with historical accounts suggesting Emperor Montezuma consumed up to 50 cups daily. Linguists trace the term 'chocolate' to the Aztec Nahuatl word xocolatl, meaning 'bitter water' in the Nahuatl language, though some scholars argue that it has hybrid origins combining Maya and Nahuatl linguistic elements.
E. In 1502, explorer Christopher Columbus introduced cocoa beans to Spain after voyaging to Mesoamerica, and later Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés quickly recognised the potential economic value of chocolate. Upon arriving in present-day Mexico in 1519, Cortés observed that chocolate beverages would appeal to the Spanish. After conquering the Aztec Empire, Spanish forces exported confiscated cocoa supplies to Spain. In response to the growing demand, Spain began cultivating cocoa trees in its American colonies. Spanish elite first developed a taste for sweetened chocolate drinks, but the beverage rapidly spread across Europe. England, the Netherlands, and France followed suit by establishing cocoa plantations in their own colonies. By the 18th century, chocolate remained primarily a luxury restricted to the affluent. However, the Industrial Revolution's technologies enabled mechanised production, dramatically reducing costs and making chocolate available to a broader population.
F. Cocoa trees are cultivated across multiple countries in Africa, Mesoamerica, and South America, thriving in cool, shaded environments within equatorial zones. Despite widespread cultivation, cocoa farming remains labour-intensive, due to the trees' requirement for specific water thresholds, temperature ranges, soil compositions, and protection from environmental threats. Approximately five years after planting, cocoa trees begin to yield large, pod-shaped fruits that grow on the trunk. These pods contain the beans used in chocolate production. While several types of cocoa trees exist, the bulk of the chocolate is produced from the seeds of the most commonly cultivated varieties.
However, farmers opt to grow more specialised types, such as Criollo or Trinitario, valued for distinctive flavour profiles. Unexpectedly, cocoa trees grown on farms are more vulnerable to disease and pests than their wild counterparts. Cocoa cultivation presents a strenuous endeavour for farmers, who sell their harvests on futures markets. exposing their incomes to external market fluctuations.
G. The process of chocolate production involves a series of steps, carried out in specialised factories where cocoa beans are meticulously processed. Workers first sort, clean, and roast the beans before extracting the outer shells, leaving only the inner nibs. These nibs are then ground into a dense paste known as chocolate liquor, which is subsequently separated into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Following standardised formulations, chocolate manufacturers blend the chocolate liquor with precise ratios of sugar, milk, and cocoa butter. The resulting mixture, often referred to as the 'crumb', undergoes fine grinding to create a smooth consistency. Finally, the mixture is then subjected to two additional processes — conching and tempering — before being placed into molds to create various forms, such as bars or other chocolate products.
H. Chocolate holds significant global economic value, with the manufacturing industry generating over $5 billion annually from cocoa crops, and its reputation remains most prominent in Europe and the United States. For instance, US cocoa product imports reached $1.4 billion in 2005. On average, Americans consume over five kilograms of chocolate per person each year. In addition, upscale chocolate boutiques, which offer premium chocolates, have gained significant popularity. Many of these shops specialise in artisanal chocolates, crafted with unique flavour profiles. Renowned chocolate brands such as Cadbury, Godiva, Lindt, and Ferrero Rocher dominate the market. However, the cocoa and chocolate production sectors often face challenges related to fair trade, sustainable development, and environmental preservation. These issues are now being actively addressed by industry stakeholders, including officials, activists, and researchers, who are working closely with farmers to promote farming practices that foster sustainability and protect the environment.
