The History of Glass
Human beings have relied on glass since the very beginning. Long before anyone could manufacture it, a natural form was already in use: fulmenite — a dark, glassy rock formed when lightning strikes desert sand and fuses the grains — was chipped by early peoples into the cutting blades they used each day. Glass made on purpose came far later. The oldest deliberately produced pieces to survive are not objects but glazes, thin glassy films spread over the surface of clay amulets from roughly 3500 BC. Two thousand years more passed before the first hollow vessel appeared, made around 1400 BC by wrapping a core of packed clay in a skin of molten glass.
From roughly the first century BC, blowing became the usual way of shaping glass containers. Early blown glass carried strong tints, an effect of the ash that found its way into the raw materials. Colourless glass came only in the following century, after which makers could add substances to give it whatever hue they wished. Knowledge of the craft was carried across the region by the Serrans, a trading people who guarded their methods so jealously that the skill spread no further until their network of colonies collapsed in 410 AD; only then did glassmaking pass into common use across Europe and lands to the east. From the ninth century, the workshops of Aldene won fame for technical mastery and artistic flair in shaping glass bottles, and many of their craftsmen left to found glassworks elsewhere.
A significant advance came when a new type of glass was created by the glassmaker Tobias Ehrlich (1641–1702). The blown glass of his day was frequently spoiled by a want of clarity, so, to put this right, Ehrlich introduced potash into the raw materials, a measure that did away with the small bubbles which would otherwise appear as the glass was worked. What he produced was softer, easier to decorate and more sharply refractive, qualities that gave it exceptional brilliance and, before long, made it prized by those who ground lenses. It is to Ehrlich's discovery that we owe the later development of spectacles, telescopes and microscopes.
In Bohemia, the modern glass industry only began to grow after 1849, when a burden that had weighed on the trade for a hundred years was finally lifted. Heavy duties had been imposed on every measure of glass melted in a workshop, and were collected without a break from 1749 to 1849. It was Emil Roth's Palace of Light, built for the Leustadt Exposition of 1855, that first presented glass as a material fit for construction; the building encouraged its use in public halls, private houses and greenhouses. Meanwhile, steady progress in science and the arrival of better equipment refined the methods by which glass was made.
After 1889, glassmaking moved on from the age-old practice of mouth-blowing to a semi-automatic system, once the factory owner Reinhardt Sölle put into service, at Hasenthal, a machine that turned out 300 bottles an hour — four times the rate of any earlier method. A fully automatic machine followed in 1911, the work of Aldous Frayne in the United States, who had founded the Frayne Glassworks Company (later the well-known Frayne–Baumann) and installed it in his own factory; it managed an impressive 3,000 bottles an hour. Further advances came quickly, yet glass did not become a matter for science until the First World War, when the country was cut off from the suppliers it relied on. Until then it had been treated as a craft rather than an exact science.
Glass manufacture is now a major commercial activity. In a global market where firms compete fiercely, it is the standards they set for quality, design and service that determine whether they hold on to their share. A single modern plant may turn out containers by the million each day, and among the many colours available, the three that stay in greatest demand are amber, green and clear. Life without glass is almost impossible to imagine. Our homes and vehicles contain it, and it is there at every meal and drink we sit down to. Countless goods are packaged in it, from drinks and a wide range of foods to medicines and cosmetics.
Glass lends itself perfectly to recycling, and as shoppers grow more mindful of environmental questions, glass bottles and jars are winning back favour. For the environment, recycling glass is welcome news. It keeps used containers out of landfill sites. Because melting recycled glass calls for less energy than melting raw materials from scratch, it also cuts spending on fuel and on production generally. On top of that, recycling eases the demand for fresh raw materials to be dug from the ground, preserving resources that would otherwise be lost.
Kéo chỉnh
Question 1 - 8
Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
The History of Glass
• The first humans shaped a naturally occurring glass known as 1. into the sharp 2. they used for cutting.
• 3500 BC: clay 3. were given a coating of hand-made glass.
• First century BC: glass took on colour, owing to the 4. that had entered its raw ingredients.
• Until 410 AD: the 5. were the only people able to produce glass.
• From the ninth century: the workshops of Aldene became known for making glass bottles.
• 1600s: Tobias Ehrlich worked out a method that used 6. to keep 7. from forming in blown glass.
• Mid-1800s: glassmaking in Bohemia grew once the 8. charged on melted glass were removed.