Earlier studies concentrated on noise intensity, measured in decibels, and on people's reactions.

Noise maps

• indicate that roads usually have the greatest noise levels

• leave out other noise sources, such as open windows or neighbours in their 

• take no account of differences in how individuals perceive noise

• have increased awareness that noise is a  matter requiring action

Problems resulting from noise

• interrupted sleep

• higher levels of stress

• a negative impact on schoolchildren's 

Different kinds of noise

• Some sounds may be regarded as agreeable, for example a town .
• To study this, researchers can adopt techniques from the  sciences, such as questionnaires.

• have little acoustic 

• tend to treat sound as something for engineers to handle

Treating sound as an art form We need to understand

• the connection between sound and 

• what psychology can teach us about sound's effects

• whether physics can explain the  of sound

Virtual-reality programs

• advantage: they can forecast how buildings will affect an area.

• present limitation: they are