Amber
Amber is a yellowish semi-precious substance, formed in prehistoric times from the hardened and fossilised resin of coniferous pine trees. It has been used for thousands of years to make jewellery and other decorative objects, being relatively soft and easy to work. Amber can also be polished to produce an attractive gleam. One disadvantage is that it is susceptible to degradation, becoming cloudy as the colours gradually fade following exposure to air. For this reason, many amber artefacts do not look as impressive as they did when they were first made.
For the ancient world, the main source of amber was the Baltic region in northern Europe, on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, where pieces washed onto beaches and could be easily collected. Amber was sought after not only for its decorative appeal, but also because many thought that it gave protection against evil. For this reason, people in ancient Egypt and Greece wore or carried small ornaments known as "amulets', and those made with amber were said to be among the most powerful. There was a belief it could cure mouth and throat complaints, and it was also ground and mixed with rose oil and honey to treat eye and ear infections. As amber naturally contains succinic acid, which was used in treatments prior to the use of antibiotics, this belief in its medicinal qualities was quite reasonable. The ancients also noticed that when rubbed, amber produced an electrical charge that drew other objects towards it. This ability to attract objects such as dried grasses led to the Persians calling amber kahruba or straw-robber'.
The ancient world also had popular myths about amber's origins, such as the story that it was the crystallised tears of a Greek goddess whose son was killed by a bolt of lightning. Colourful though such stories were, even people of the time may not have taken them too seriously, as writers such as the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) had already correctly identified amber as a hardened resin. In addition, a number of myths about amber involved trees, indicating an awareness of its true origins.
In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer and philosopher Pliny the Elder classified precious stones and materials, including amber. He was dismissive of many earlier myths about it and acknowledged the fact that amber was collected from Baltic shores. He also agreed with assertions that amber originated from pine trees, writing that if amber was burnt, it smelled of pine. He also knew it originally existed in a liquid state because of the trapped insects sometimes seen inside larger pieces. He did not, however, grasp the concept of fossilisation, instead explaining the hardening of resin as a process performed by the sea.
The earliest evidence of people working with amber in the Baltic dates to the Neolithic period (approx. 6000-2200 BCE). But it was contact between the peoples of the Bronze Age (approx. 2200-800 BC:) that ensured amber spread across Europe, with various tribes trading pieces of amber and receiving metals in return. Amber was taken south from the Baltic via rivers to the Adriatic Sea, from where it was shipped to western Asia. Perhaps because of its rarity so far from its source, amber was particularly prized in this region, where it signified power and social standing for kings and queens. Priests were another group that wore amber as a mark of distinction. Some amber beaded jewellery has been discovered in tombs in ancient Egypt, although finds here are uncommon.
During the Iron Age, the east coast of modern-day Italy became something of a specialist in amber. By the 9th century BCE, the coastal region of Verucchio had become an important manufacturing centre. Here, significant quantities of artefacts have been found, including amber discs for earrings and necklaces, and amber that would have been an embellishment for clothes that have disintegrated over time. The Etruscans, who flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd centuries BCE, continued working with amber, creating fine jewellery and small figurines of animals and humans.
Although amber seems to have gone out of fashion during the Greek Classical period (500-300 BCE), it saw a resurgence in popularity during the Roman Empire (31 BCE - 476 CE). Aquileia, in central Italy, became a noted centre of production between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. Amber workshops in this region produced many objects such as drinking goblets, which were sold for high prices to rich Romans for use in their homes. Its reputation as a protective talisman continued and it was widely used by Romans, in particular gladiators (men trained to fight in arenas for sport), who attached pieces of amber to their fighting equipment to ward off danger. The Romans' use of amber declined from the 3rd century CE, but it remained popular in the Baltic regions. In the medieval period, the Armenians became the new champions of amber, and ensured its trade and manufacture into fine decorative pieces continued into modern times.
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Question 1 - 6
Choose TRUE/FALSE/NOT GIVEN
1.
The appearance of amber changes over time.
True
False
Not given
2.
In ancient times, the amber found on Baltic beaches came from trees growing nearby.
True
False
Not given
3.
All protective amulets in ancient Egypt and Greece contained amber.
True
False
Not given
4.
It is clear why people assumed that amber had healing properties.
True
False
Not given
5.
One name for amber comes from its effect on other objects.
True
False
Not given
6.
Aristotle's definition of amber supported its link to a goddess.
True
False
Not given